Composition

An absence of musical notation or an inability to interpret musical notation determines that music be orally transmitted from person to person or from generation to generation. Traditions of oral transmission remain in all cultures but notation has freed musicians to study, analyse, draft, edit, develop, modify, improve and share musical ideas in a structured and reliable fashion.

In Western culture the early Greeks were the first to use a form of musical notation. That it was the Greeks should be of no surprise since their culture deemed music so important that it was worthy of philosophical, scientific and performance studies.

The science associated with music was mathematics. Pythagoras, when he wasn't squaring the opposite two sides and relating them to the square of the hypotenuse, gave considerable thought to the laws of mathematics and music.

To philosophers of his time the whole universe, known and unknown, was maintained in harmony only by adherence to the irrefutable rules of mathematics. So, since the universe was constructed around mathematics, a mathematician could unlock the secrets of the universe. This, Pythagoras proceeded to do in terms of music. It was he who recognised the precise and arithmetically constant relationship between string-ratio and pitch and he was the first to formulate the mathematical principles upon which modern, western scales are based.

Philosophical debate and scientific study, associated with the early Greeks' cultural respect for performance, advanced the cause of music so that by the second century BC the Greeks had seven different scales. As with advances in any field, increased knowledge extended the boundaries of possibility so by circa 200AD there is evidence of the first musical notation. It was not notation as we would recognise it but more a series of letters in linear fashion indicating pitch. There were also individual lines for note duration and poetic metre since early Greek music was an accompaniment for epic poetry noted for the cadenced and rhythmic intonation of its delivery.

This earliest example of musical instruction was written on papyrus and has been identified as a section of Euripedes' Orestes.

Those pieces of early Greek music that survive span a period of seven hundred years from the fifth century BC until the second century AD. Such a chronology indicates that the methods of communicating musical ideas were evolving.

Building on the early work of Pythagoras, his postulations concerning the octave and scales (modes) were explored and developed. By the second century AD, Cleonidas had formulated a system of octave-species.

In line with the musical philosophies of Aristotle and Plato, each of Cleonidas' seven modes was said to contain inherent emotional qualities that directly influenced the listener. A balanced exposure to complementary modes was very acceptable since the outcome would be an acceptable citizen. However, constant exposure to inappropriately matched modes would result in an undesirable person.

For ease of recognition and understanding, each mode was given a name based upon geographical regions in ancient Greece. It is possible, but not certain, that characteristics of the music from each region were reflected in the ethos of the mode.

The seven modes were not constructed for extreme compass. Ancient Greek music was always associated with the human voice and the compass of just less than two octaves contained within these seven modes was deemed sufficient for the purpose of accompaniment.

By the time that Cleonidas was working, Christ had been born and the early Christian faith was emerging and beginning to spread. Early Christian music was greatly influenced by the contributions made by the academic Greek musicians.

Probably, the Roman academic Boethius (470-524 AD) provided the link between the early Greeks and early Christians. He wrote five books recording in great detail the music theory of the Greeks.

The modes that were used in early sacred music were named after those given by Cleonidas: a true compliment. It seems almost churlish to point out that, whilst the naming of the modes was correct, the interpretation of the finalis-related structures of the modes, though accurate, did not replicate those of Cleonidas.

St. Ambrose (circa 340-397 AD) and Pope Gregory the Great (540-604 AD) relied heavily on their Greek predecessors by adapting the modes for plainsong, later to be known as Gregorian Chant because of the enormous contribution made by him.

(NB There is no evidence that Gregory actually contributed to the extension of the modal system in any practical way. He just happened to be a pope with sufficient belief in the power of sacred music that he directed others to investigate the musical condition of that time. There is a legend that Gregory was the vehicle through which God's wishes were transmitted. A dove (the Holy Ghost) perched on Gregory's shoulder and dictated the musical will of God. Gregory sang the dove's message and a concealed scribe wrote down the notes as he heard them.)

Such was the significance of the modes and plainsong that it is worthwhile giving them some consideration.

Reference to the chart will aid understanding.

The four original modes as designated by St. Ambrose were known as authentic and the notes upon which they started and finished were D, E, F and G. These initial/terminal notes were known as the finalis of the mode. After the manner of Cleonidas these authentics were named Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian and Mixolydian.

The fifth note of each authentic mode became known as the dominant, here represented in red. (This was to be the main [reciting] note within a mode around which plainchant melody would weave, returning frequently to from whence it came. The finalis would be the terminal note of the melody.) It is interesting to note that B was considered an inauspicious note so was thought to be unsuitable as a dominant. When mathematics demanded a dominant B, it was replaced with a C.

Pope Gregory added to these four authentic modes four others that were situated beneath their corresponding authentic mode. These were known as plagal modes. (In Greek, hypo means below so plagal modes were named hypodorian, hypophrygian and so on.)

Even though the plagal modes fall between the authentic modes they still share the same finalis as the authentic mode from which they stem. (Example: the finalis for the Dorian mode is D so the finalis for the Hypodorian mode is also D even though its initial/terminal note is A.)

The dominant (reciting) note in a plagal mode was not the fifth in the series as was the case with the authentic mode. Such a pattern would place the reciting note at the extremities of the mode thus limiting the patterns woven around it. As a consequence, The dominant in a plagal mode was calculated as the second note before the dominant of its related authentic.

Cleonidas also knew the plagal Hypomixolydian eighth mode but it merely replicated the authentic Dorian mode in every respect apart from the fact that they had different dominants. Mathematics required that the dominant should be B but, as an inauspicious note, C replaced it.

The characteristic tone of each mode, recognised by the Greeks as representing different emotional qualities, is not related to key signature since there was none. The variations depend entirely on the intervals resultant from the finalis of the chosen mode.

Reference to the chart will show that the pattern of intervals associated with the Dorian mode would be TSTTTST whereas the pattern associated with the Phrygian mode would be STTTSTT. It is these varied sequences of intervals that give each mode its characteristic sound.

In 1547, the eight Gregorian modes were extended to twelve. In his book, Dodecachordon (twelve strings), Glareanus outlined his theories concerning their introduction. As was the established fashion, Glareanus identified two authentic modes with their two corresponding plagal modes. He named them Aeolian, Hypoaeolian, Ionian and Hypoionian. The significance of these new modes was immense. Their arrival heralded the transition from modal music to tonal music by introducing the concept of major and minor keys.

As mentioned previously, plainsong (Gregorian Chant) was based around the system of modes. In its early form, plainsong was passed on orally since its melody was simple and its note duration closely followed the metre of the text. The chant was monophonic (a single line) but gradually the melodies became sufficiently complex to need some form of aide memoirs for the singers.

Neumes, were introduced during the sixth century AD. These were marks written above the text to help singers remember the direction of the melody; whether it rose, fell or continued. The neumes, which were the ancestors of western musical notation, appeared as accents indicating directions. Another innovation associated with neumes was the introduction of a clef. This indicated the pitch of a nominated note from which a singer could deduce the pitch of the surrounding neumes.

By the end of the first millennium AD plainsong had developed into a more complex form. Now, a second line was introduced. This development was known as organum and was the first appearance of multi-part music. This was known as polyphony as opposed to the single-line monophony.

Organum developed from two lines to three and then four lines so that it became increasingly difficult to maintain a line within a polyphonous arrangement of four. Neumes, intended only as an aid to memory, proved incapable of supporting the increased complexity of polyphonic music.

At some time around the turn of the first millennium AD, an unknown monk had the simple yet brilliant idea of clustering the neumes around a single red line drawn above the text. The line represented F so any neumes (by now the conventional small, solid, black squares) situated directly on the line were instantly recognised as being F. The higher and lower notes variously spaced above or below the red line afforded stability, which in turn increased accuracy. So successful was this idea that soon a yellow line representing C was added and then two more lines. Four staff lines are still the convention for plainsong. The unknown cleric had initiated the system that still applies today: each line and each space within the stave represented a certain pitch.

An Italian, Benedictine monk, Guido d'Arezzo, is credited with the formalising of this staff-line technique in the early eleventh century. By as early as the end of the twelfth century a system was in place that indicated pitch with precision, simplicity and efficiency. The same could not be said about note duration. The increasingly intricate weavings of different voices placing various emphases on the same textual constituents required some form of guidance for the singers.

A system of rhythmic modes or modal notation emerged during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Unlike current practice, these modes did not indicate the duration of individual notes by sign or symbol, rather they indicated the rhythmic pattern expected of combinations and groups of notes. Linked by ligatures, six modes developed that were closely related to the metre of Latin verse.

A rhythmic mode was recognised by the ligature and a singer would continue in the directed fashion until another ligature ordered a different rhythm. Different parts would sing different rhythms so that singer A might follow a ligature sequence of x,y,z ; singer B performs z,x,y and singer C performs sequence y,z,x. By this method each can sing an identical text with different rhythmic values equating, in total, to the same duration.

About 1250 AD, an unreliable date but sufficiently close to be acceptable, Franco of Cologne introduced a system whereby single notes were given a value. Four symbols were used as follows:

Double long
Long
Breve
Semibreve

The unit of the system was the tempus (we might call it a beat) and a breve had one beat. (The modern breve does not equate.)

Using the breve as the base, a long, depending on whether it was perfect or imperfect, would be three or two beats (Perfect was always associated with three. The medieval mind could think of nothing more perfect than the Holy Trinity of God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Ghost.) A double long was always worth two longs so could be either six or four beats. The relationship between the breve and the semibreve was similar.

Such notation liberated musicians so that musical notation was transformed from being an aid to the memory or provider of helpful suggestions to that of being the giver of specific instructions.

By the time of Philippe de Vitry (1291-1361), notation had advanced to the point where it closely resembled the conventional modern form. Within his treatise Ars Nova (New Art) de Vitry outlined his theory for further duration instructions. He extended the idea of sub-dividing longs, breves and semibreves into perfect thirds or imperfect halves. The thirds or halves of the semibreve were named minims and were represented thus: . Also introduced was the semiminim:

Three possible subdivisions were available: the division of longs was known as mode, the breve as time and the semibreve as prolation.

Perfect		indicates: breve = 3 semibreves = 9 minims
Imperfect		indicates: breve = 2 semibreves = 6 minims
Perfect		indicates: breve = 3 semibreves = 6 minims
Imperfect		indicates: breve = 2 semibreves = 4 minims

The idea of using a dot to alter the duration of a note was also introduced.

The significance of Philippe de Vitry's Ars Nova was such that the term was adopted to name the period of musical history that was a direct result of the liberating influence of his theory.

By the middle of the fifteenth century there was time differentiation between hollow and solid notes but the number of staff lines was not finally standardised at five until the seventeenth century. (Plainsong still maintains the convention of four staff lines.)

Bar lines, which originally had no relationship with equal durations of time, were erratically used in the fifteenth century but they merely broke up the series of notes into visually manageable sections. It was during the sixteenth century that they began to represent a time-related entity.

As has been previously mentioned, Glareanus in the mid-sixteenth century, paved the way for the transition from modal music to the major and minor keys of tonal music so by about the year 1600 AD everything was in place to provide composers with an efficient and precise tool. This tool of notation allowed them to explore, investigate and communicate their musical ideas in a fashion previously unavailable to their predecessors.

The importance of sacred music in the development of notation is there for everyone to see but the importance of secular music and musicians should never be underestimated. In particular, the freedoms associated with Ars Nova were a direct result of secular musicians striving to distance themselves from the formal, convention-bound, modally restricted practices of sacred music. To its credit, the Church, whilst never abandoning the glories of plainchant, moved with the times and absorbed the possibilities and potential offered by Ars Nova and welcomed to the sacred repertoire some of the most wondrous music ever written.

Having a system whereby musical ideas can be transmitted with precision is analogous to transmitting thoughts/information/feelings etc. by the printed word. To do this we need, within our own particular cultures, a universally agreed and acknowledged print code. This code must be related to reality and that reality is language.

He brobs a spoddle is easily read because we understand the code, but is it language? There are certainly clues that it might be but it conveys no meaning; it is not related to the reality of what language actually is: a method of communication.

Similarly, if I tap the table, whistle a note and sing tra-la I have done three things that are recognisable as musical acts, but are they music? This sequence of sounds, in the same way as brobbing a spoddle is unrelated to the reality of language, is unrelated to the reality of music, which, like language, is a method of communication.

But to consider music solely as a method of communication does not go far enough. A knock at the door, a greeting of "Coo-ee" or whistling the dog are all methods of communication but none would be considered music; though again, each has the potential to become a musical act.

That music is sound and sound is the transfer of vibrations through the air to the eardrum still does not explain music: only the physics of the transmission. So what is it, then, that turns sound into music?

In Western culture, music is said to have six ingredients: melody, rhythm, timbre, harmony, texture and form, a brief explanation of which would be:

Melody = Tune
Rhythm = Beat
Timbre = Sound. (A trumpet could play a tune and then a violin could play the same tune. Even though we did not see them being played we would know which was which by their timbre.)
Harmony = two or more notes of different pitch being played at the same time. The result is a chord. If the notes "agree" they form a concord, if the notes "disagree" they form a discord.
Texture = the way in which sound is used to create different effects and feelings.
Form = the shape and structure of a piece of music.

As a minimum, the most basic music would have melody and rhythm but if, as in some musical forms, melody is missing, other ingredients must be present.

The periods of Western Classical Music

We have seen that, to be considered music, sounds must be arranged according to accepted criteria and that, through abiding by those criteria, ideas can be exchanged and innovation introduced by using an agreed system of notation. This being the case, with the endless creativity and unique qualities within each person and their propensity to respond to environmental conditions, it is little wonder that individuals and groups of individuals have imposed their own interpretations on the possibilities of music. Resulting from these unique blends of creativity, historical context, technological and scientific progress, improved communication systems and cultural shifts has emerged a diverse and ever-moving array of musical inventiveness that reflects and informs the knowledge and conditions of its time.

Classical Music (that which is proven and permanent, lacking the ephemeral nature of popular music) includes work spanning hundreds of years and the context-influenced creators of its diversity have imbued their contributions with characteristics that enable recognisable periods. These periods are not exact. They have times when overlapping takes place but the following is a listing of those periods with very approximate dates.

Medieval: circa 450 to about 1450
Medieval: 1450-1600
Baroque: 1600-1750
Classical: 1750-1810
Romantic: 1810-1910
20th Century: 1900 onwards.

To continue with the development of music throughout these periods it is recommended that readers refer to the timeline where they will find composers and composition outlined within a cultural and historical context.

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